Poverty & Hunger

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How Has Financial Deepening Affected Poverty Reduction in India? Empirical Analysis Using State-Level Panel Data　

IDE

This 38-page Japanese discussion paper examines empirically whether financial deepening has contributed to poverty reduction in India

Poverty & Hunger , Economic Policy Posted: 2010-08-31

The Dynamics of Spending and Absorption of Aid: Panel Data Analysis

IDE

This 44-page Japanese discussion paper studies the spending and absorption of aid in PRGF-supported programs, verifies whether the use of aid is programmed to be smoothed over time, and analyzes how considerations about macroeconomic stability influence the programmed use of aid

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-08-31

Wheat Supplies and Food Fears

CFR

A US brief assessing the potential for a global food crisis

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-08-14

The Economic Impact of Competition

ODI

This 4-page UK study finds that more competition, more players, more dynamic entry and exit, and more intense rivalry for customers tend to deliver better market outcomes, including lower prices, better access to services for consumers, and improved international competitiveness

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-08-01

Customer Satisfaction, Improving Quality and Access to Services and Supports in Vulnerable Neighborhoods.

CSSP

A 38-page US paper presenting a a framework or set of ideas for using customer satisfaction principles and strategies to improve the quality, responsiveness, and accessibility of public sector and privately provided services in vulnerable communities

Social Policy , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-07-13

Haiti: A Forward Look

USIP

A 4-page US assessment of the situation on the ground in Haiti five months after the earthquake

Public Safety & Disaster Mitigation , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-07-12

Childhood Poverty Persistence: Facts and Consequences

Urban Institute

This 12-page US brief connects poverty status at birth, poverty persistence, and adult outcomes

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-07-02

Millennium Development Goals Report Card: Learning from Progress

ODI, Millennium Commission

This 12-page summary is part of initial findings from an ongoing review of development progress

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-06-29

Pulling Agricultural Innovation and the Market Together

CGD

A 27-page US working paper exploring how advance market commitments and other market-like pull mechanisms can strengthen incentives for the private sector to invest more in agricultural R&D to benefit poor people

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-06-25

Poverty Rate Among Single-Parent Families Cut by Half over Decade

C.D. Howe Institute

A 20-page study claiming that the poverty rate among the two million Canadians living in lone-parent families has fallen by more than half over a decade

Poverty & Hunger , Families, Children & Youth Posted: 2010-06-25

Time and Poverty from a Developing Country Perspective

Levy Economics Institute

This 38-page US working paper is concerned with the measurement of poverty in the context of developing countries

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2010-06-16

The MDGs and Beyond: Pro-poor Policy in a Changing World

EADI

The working paper analyses what the MDGs have achieved, what the 2010 MDG review should do and gives an outlook on how the context is changing further for global development 2010-2020

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-05-21

World Development Indicators 2010

World Bank

The access page to the World Bank's Data Catalogue of over 2,000 development indicators

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-05-18

The Development of Multidimensional Poverty in Germany 1985-2007

IZA

This paper deals with concepts of multidimensional poverty measurement and applies them to Germany

Poverty & Hunger , Social Policy Posted: 2010-05-16

A Modern Framework for Measuring Poverty and Basic Economic Security

CEPR

A US study proposing a new framework for measuring poverty and basic economic security in the United States. Instead of being limited to the “extremely-low-income-only” approach the current poverty line and administration’s proposed Supplemental Income Poverty Measure (SIPM) represent, this framework should utilize measures of low income and other forms of economic hardship related to low income

Poverty & Hunger , Social Policy Posted: 2010-04-28

Opportunity and Ownership over the Life Cycle

Urban Institute

This US brief explores asset-building strategies, drawing on the suggestions from a roundtable of asset, education, housing, and retirement policy experts. Policies to combat poverty and build wealth should account for people's needs and abilities to acquire assets over a lifetime. The paper looks at typical saving patterns over the life cycle and recommends ways to craft more integrated wealth-building policies.

Poverty & Hunger , Social Policy Posted: 2010-04-24

Capacity for Change: Reforming U.S. Assistance Efforts in Poor and Fragile Countries

Brookings

This 62-page report describes the context for reforming US aid and examines the key issues for decision by policymakers in an effort to inform a coherent and effective national approach to both stabilization and broader developmen

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-04-12

Using Food Aid to Support, Not Harm, Haitian Agriculture

CEPR

A 5-page US issue brief arguing that buying up all of Haiti's rice should be close to the amount of food aid for rice that the international community is likely to provide this year, and would provide a tremendous boost to Haitian farmers, who currently are unable to compete with low-cost rice imports from the U.S.

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-04-08

Comparing Food and Cash Transfers to the Ultra-Poor in Bangladesh

IFPRI

This 215-page study evaluates the relative impacts of food and cash transfers on food security and livelihood outcomes among the ultra poor in Bangladesh

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2010-04-08

Why a Careful Evaluation of the Millennium Villages Is Not Optional

CGDev

A US article arguing that a careful evaluation of the millennium village project is vital

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-03-25

Asset Poverty and Debt Among Families with Children

NCCP

This 12-page US report examines the significance of asset ownership among low-income families

Poverty & Hunger , Families, Children & Youth Posted: 2010-02-19

Adaptation of Agriculture and the Food System to Climate Change: Policy Issues

RFF

A 12-page US issue brief discussing how government policies are likely to affect the ability of agriculture and food sector to adapt to climate change

Climate Change & Environment , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-02-15

Yemen on the Brink: Implications for U.S. Policy

CEIP

This 16-page US House testimony deals with the confluence of looming challenges that threaten to overwhelm the Yemeni government

Governance & Politics , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-02-06

Delivering Genetically Engineered Crops to Poor Farmers

IFPRI

A 4-page US analysis of regulatory reforms needed for farmers and consumers in developing countries to benefit from GE crops

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2010-02-04

Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism: What Is a Market Economy and How Can It Deliver?

CIPE

This 5-page US article examines different kinds of capitalism

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-02-04

Haiti Earthquake: Crisis and Response

CRS

The focus of this 30-page US report is on the immediate crisis in Haiti as a result of the earthquake and the U.S. and international response to date

Public Safety & Disaster Mitigation , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-02-04

Evaluation of Fuel Poverty in Belgium, Spain, France, Italy and the United Kingdom

European Commission

This 34-page study presents a quantitative and qualitative evaluation of fuel poverty in Belgium, Spain, France, Italy and the United Kingdom

Energy , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-01-16

International Trade in Agriculture and the Right to Food

FES

This 52-page German paper calls for a strengthening of the special role of agriculture in trade agreements to ensure their compatibility with the states' obligation to fulfill their populations\' Right to Food

Poverty & Hunger , Globalisation & International Trade Posted: 2010-01-11

GE Crops Show Uncertain Prospects for Reducing Nitrogen Pollution

UCS

This 46-page US report finds no genetically engineered crops have increased nitrogen efficiency, while traditional plant breeding and other methods have shown success

Climate Change & Environment , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2010-01-08

Climate Change and Hunger

IFPRI

This 108-page US report reviews current knowledge of the effects of climate change on hunger. It summarizes knowledge from global studies completed and provides an overview of actions that can be taken to address the challenge

Poverty & Hunger , Climate Change & Environment Posted: 2009-12-18

2009 Global Hunger Index

IFPRI

A 6-page US issue brief recording the state of hunger both worldwide and country by country

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-12-18

Interrelated Dynamics of Health and Poverty in Australia

IZA

This 28-page discussion paper examines the joint dynamics of health and poverty in Australian families

Health , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-12-11

Reducing Poverty through Low Carbon Development

DIIS

Focusing on the so-called Least Developed Countries, this 4-page Danish policy brief outlines the benefits from low carbon development for national governments and the poor, and provides recommendations for development cooperation in agriculture, forestry and energy in Least Developed Countries

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-12-09

The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009

UNDP

This 60-page report presents an annual assessment of progress towards the MDGs. Although data are not yet available to reveal the full impact of the recent economic downturn, they point to areas where progress towards the eight goals has slowed or reversed

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-12-03

Fixing Famine: How Technologies & Incentives Can Help Feed Africa

IPN

A 20-page UK study about technologies that can improve food security and the wellbeing of smallholder farmers, based on field work in Malawi and Kenya

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-12-01

Ownership and the Donor-Recipient Relationship

DIIS

A 12-page Danish working paper assessing the impact of recent aid reforms to put ownership into practice

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-11-17

Millions Fed: Proven Successes in Agricultural Development

IFPRI

This 179-page book examines how policies, programs, and investments in pro-poor agricultural development have helped to substantially reduce hunger across Africa, Asia, and Latin America

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-11-13

Protecting Progress: The Challenge Facing Low-Income Countries in the Global Recession

World Bank

This 26-page paper reports that while the global economy is showing tentative signs of recovery, 43 low-income developing countries are still suffering the consequences of the global recession, which highlights the need to increase support to the poorest countries dealing with economic volatility and crisis

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-09-23

Transitioning In and Out of Poverty

Urban Institute

This 2-page US fact sheet describes how, why, and when people move in and out of poverty

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-09-19

Food Security in South Asia:

ICRIER

This 40-page Indian working paper aims to identify issues relating to food security, the policy initiatives taken to tackle these issues, evaluate these policies and suggest measures to overcome identified constraints in order to improve the food security situation in the region

Poverty & Hunger , Regional Posted: 2009-09-18

Funding Food Security – A Financial Lens on the L’Aquila G8

Stimson Center

A US article commenting on the reality of a steady post-Cold-War decline in international agricultural development financing on the part of the G7, and implied agreement to close financing gaps

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-09-17

Population Growth, Environment and Food Security: What Does the Future Hold?

IDS

A 4-page UK brief considering the effect of population growth on the environment and food security

Poverty & Hunger , Climate Change & Environment Posted: 2009-09-11

Half in Ten: Why Taking Disability into Account is Essential to Reducing Income Poverty and Expanding Economic Inclusion

CEPR

This 19-page US report reviews recent research on disability and poverty that finds higher rates of disability over the life cycle and among persons experiencing poverty than earlier research

Disability , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-09-10

Improving Savings Incentives for the Poor

NCPA

A 2-page US brief analysis proposing a programme designed to improve savings by low earners

Poverty & Hunger , Social Policy Posted: 2009-09-10

Fixing Global Nutrition Institutions

CGD

This 29-page US essay shows why nutrition is too often a low priority for rich-world donors and even for governments in the most affected countries, and offers two practical suggestions for improvement

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-08-18

From Unpaid to Paid Care Work: The Macroeconomic Implications of HIV and AIDS on Women's Time-tax Burdens

Levy Economics Institute

This 32-page US working paper considers public employment guarantee programs in the context of South Africa as a means to address the nexus of poverty, unemployment, and unpaid work burdens—all factors exacerbated by HIV/AIDS

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-08-05

Conditional Cash Transfers : Reducing Present and Future Poverty

World Bank

A 384-page report showing that there is good evidence that conditional cash transfers (CCTs) have improved the lives of poor people

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-07-30

Aid Coordination on the Ground: Are Joint Country Assistance Strategies the Answer?

Brookings

This 39-page US working paper considers whether the use of joint country assistance strategies will improve aid effectiveness

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-07-28

Changing Poverty and Changing Antipoverty Policies

Institute for Research on Poverty

This 43-page US discussion paper reviews three cross-cutting factors that shape the extent and nature of poverty and prospects for reducing poverty: the changing role of race and ethnicity in the labor market and society; changing gender roles that influence both trends in labor force participation of women and patterns of family formation and childbearing; and the recent history of social welfare programs and policies

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-07-22

Agricultural Pesticides: To Spray or not to Spray

AEI

A US article commenting on EU proposals for banning the use of a number of chemicals in pesticides

Poverty & Hunger , European Union Posted: 2009-07-15

Subsidizing Vocational Training for Disadvantaged Youth in Developing Countries: Evidence from a Randomized Trial

IZA

This 46-page paper evaluates the impact of a randomized training program for disadvantaged youth introduced in Colombia in 2005. This randomized trial offers a unique opportunity to examine the impact of training in developing countries

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-07-14

Urban Poverty and Health in Developing Countries

Population Reference Bureau

This 20-page bulletin provides a sketch of urban health in developing countries, documenting the intraurban differences in health for a number of countries and showing how the risks facing the urban poor compare with those facing rural villagers

Poverty & Hunger , Health Posted: 2009-07-11

The Impact of Microcredit on the Poor in Bangladesh: Revisiting the Evidence

CGDEV

How robust is the evidence that microcredit improves the lives of the poor by, for example, increasing or stabilizing household consumption? Three landmark studies put microfinance to that test in Bangladesh, but the contradictions among them have produced lasting controversy and confusion. This 50-page working paper reevaluates the previous studies and finds a way to end the impasse

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-06-23

Promoting Gender Equality through Stimulus Packages and Public Job Creation

Levy Economics Institute

This 12-page US paper examines the macroeconomic consequences of scaling up South Africa’s Expanded Public Works Programme by adding to it a new sector for social service delivery in health and education

Poverty & Hunger , Social Policy Posted: 2009-06-18

Is Social Security Part of the Social Safety Net?

CESifo

This 40-page paper focuses specifically on how Social Security affects the poor

Social Policy , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-06-06

Rice Price Formation in the Short Run and the Long Run

CGD

This 46-page paper analyzes price formation on the world’s rice market using simple supply and demand models as a start, but moving to “supply of storage” models—a staple of commodity-market analysis for more than half a century—to explain hoarding behavior and its subsequent impact on prices

Poverty & Hunger , Globalisation & International Trade Posted: 2009-06-06

“Land Grabbing” by Foreign Investors in Developing Countries: Risks and Opportunities

IFPRI

A 4-page policy brief arguing that foreign investment can provide key resources for agriculture, but only if arrangements are properly negotiated, practices are sustainable, and benefits are shared

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-05-08

Feed the World: The Challenge of Agricultural Development

IPN

This 24-page paper focuses on food, first surveying long-term trends in global demand and supply to put recent price changes into perspective. It evaluates various factors which underpin the high prices experienced in 2007 and 2008, including the conversion of crops into liquid fuels (“biofuels”). The paper concludes with lessons we should have learned recently about food scarcity and its alleviation

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-05-05

Evaluating the Impact of Community-Based Health Interventions: Evidence from Brazil's Family Health Program

IZA

This 60-page paper analyzes the direct and indirect impacts of Brazil's Family Health Program

Health , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-04-20

The Geography of Disability and Economic Disadvantages in Australian Capital Cities

AIHW

This 32-page report presents data on the geographical distribution of severe disability among people aged less than 65 years living in Australian capital cities

Disability , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-04-01

Rice Crisis Forensics: How Asian Governments Carelessly Set the World Rice Market on Fire

CGD

This 43-page US working paper describes how the global rice market became enflamed in 2008 and provides pointers to help policymakers in these countries avoid a repeat of the disastrous price spike of 2008.

Poverty & Hunger , Globalisation & International Trade Posted: 2009-03-18

What Makes Case Management Work for People Experiencing Homelessness?

AHURI

This 155-page Australian research synthesis aims to provide an evidence-based understanding of how case management works to contribute to the development of more effective responses to the needs of people experiencing homelessness. The report defines case management and synthesises the international scientific evidence on case management practice for the homelessness sector

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-03-04

Poverty Lines and Lives of the Poor: Underestimation of Urban Poverty, the Case of India

IIED

This 56-page UK working paper describes the development of poverty lines in India, from the 19th century to the present, and assesses their limitations as an indication of poverty

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-02-27

The Feeding of the Nine Billion: Global Food Security for the 21st Century

Chatham House

This 61-page UK report sets out to look beyond the immediate causes and impacts of the global food price crisis of recent months, towards the medium and longer term

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-02-25

Preventing and Ending Homelessness: Next Steps

Urban Institute

This 12-page brief examines the current state of homelessness in the US, how community responses are changing, what is working, and what policymakers should be doing to make more advances

Housing , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-02-20

The Storm in Sub-Saharan Africa

Project Syndicate

An article highlighting the effect of the global financial crisis on Sub-Saharan Africa

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-02-13

Feed People First

CCPA

This 10-page Canadian paper claims that biofuels are contributing to global food shortages and price increases

Poverty & Hunger , Energy Posted: 2009-02-07

Just Desserts? Securing Global Food Futures

IPPR North

A 37-page UK report arguing that in order to achieve global food security, greater harmonisation of efforts is needed as well as the full participation of countries who have become increasingly influential in either production, aid or investment such as China, India and Brazil.

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-01-28

Toward the End of Poverty in Haiti

USIP

Report of a US meeting held to discuss the challenge of reducing poverty in Haiti

Poverty & Hunger , Governance & Politics Posted: 2009-01-19

Linkages between Land Management, Land Degradation, and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa

IFPRI

This 132-page report seeks to demonstrate the strong strong linkage between poverty and land management

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-01-13

Toward Measuring the Impact of the World Food Program's Purchase for Progress Initiative

CGD

An 8-page US essay questioning some of the assumptions underlying the World Food Program's Purchase for Progress Initiative

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2009-01-07

Challenging Choices: Protection and Livelihoods in Darfur

ODI

This 46-page UK working paper explores the linkages between protection and livelihoods for rural populations in West Darfur, examining the Danish Refugee Council's programme in that region

Internal Displacement , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2009-01-06

Dry Aquifers in Arab Countries and the Looming Food Crisis

MERIA

An Israeli article examining water supply and food self-sufficiency in Arab countries

Poverty & Hunger , Regional Posted: 2009-01-02

Measuring Poverty and Economic Inclusion

CEPR

This 47-page US report evaluates current poverty metrics used in the US and suggests a new measure for a broader standard of basic income adequacy.

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-12-23

Toward Measuring the Impact of the World Food Program's Purchase for Progress Initiative

CGD

This 8-page paper examines whether purchasing food aid locally is the answer to higher global food prices, to the inefficiencies associated with imported food aid, and to farmers' low incomes

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-12-23

Towards Pro-poor Adaptation to Climate Change in the Urban Centres of Low- and Middle-income Countries

IIED

This 45-page paper outlines a framework for adaptation to climate change for urban areas in low- and middle-income nations that is pro-poor and that enhances the capacity of low-income households and community organizations to contribute to such adaptation

Climate Change & Environment , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-12-18

Eradicating Child Poverty: The Role of Key Policy Areas

Joseph Rowntree Foundation

A series of short reports focusing on certain key policy areas relevant to the 2020 target of eradicating UK child poverty. Each report presents an overview of the importance of the area, progress over the last few years, the extent of its likely contribution to the overall goal and effective alternatives where necessary (Single page with links to each report)

Families, Children & Youth , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-12-17

Strengthen the Millennium Challenge Corporation: Better Results are Possible

The Brookings Institution

A 9-page US policy brief assessing the effectiveness of the Millennium Challenge Corporation

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-12-16

Nigeria’s Imperative for Youth-Led Entrepreneurial Development

CIPE

A 6-page article calling for an environment in Nigeria in which young entrepreneurs can lead the country’s development

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-12-15

Update - Debt Cancellation for Haiti: No Reason For Further Delays

CEPR

This 17-page US paper presents an update of CEPR’s December 2007 overview of Haiti’s outstanding foreign debt, and how much of this debt is scheduled to be canceled under Haiti’s participation in the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank’s Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative.

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2008-12-08

Food and Financial Crises: Implications for Agriculture and the Poor

IFPRI

This paper on the food crisis in developing countries argues that synchronized response is needed to ease the burden on the poor and allow agriculture to face new challenges and respond to new opportunities.

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2008-12-04

Better Aid: Responding to Gaps in Effectiveness

The Brookings Institution

This 8-page US policy brief uses a two-pronged approach so that aid architecture can be strengthened, gaps filled, flows coordinated, and development sustainable and effective—ultimately making aid better

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-12-03

Are There Opportunities to Increase Social Security Progressivity Despite Underfunding?

Urban Institute

This 29-page US paper reviews why Social Security fails to lift more elderly low-wage workers and minorities out of poverty or provide a greater return on their contributions.

Social Policy , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-11-27

Financial Crisis May Worsen Poverty in China, India

CFR

A US backgrounder examining how reduced economic growth in India and China could reverse poverty alleviation efforts and even push more people into poverty

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2008-11-25

The Politics of Hunger

CFR

A 4-page US article explaining what needs to be done to end the global food crisis

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2008-11-07

Workforce Development as an Anti-Poverty Strategy

Urban Instiute

This 41-page US paper examines the cost-effectiveness of funded workforce development programmes

Poverty & Hunger , Social Policy Posted: 2008-11-04

Thougth for Food: The Challenges of Coping with Soaring Food Prices

CGDev

This 66-page working paper addresses the challenges posed for developing countries by rising food prices

International Development , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-11-04

Burma/Myanmar after Nargis: Time to Normalise Aid Relations

Crisis Group

This 45-page report urges the international community to build on the unprecedented cooperation between the Myanmar government and humanitarian agencies

Public Safety & Disaster Mitigation , Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-10-26

Famine in North Korea Redux?

Peterson Institute

A 24-page US working paper assessing current insecurity in North Korea

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2008-10-24

The Challenge of Hunger 2008

IFPRI

A 41-page report examining the latest figures from the Global Hunger Index highlighting those countries with the most worrying hunger status

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-10-17

Rising Food and Fuel Prices: Addressing the Risks to Future Generations

World Bank

A 20-page study assessing the effect of rising food and fuel prices on malnutrition

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2008-10-15

Global Food Crisies: Monitoring and Assessing Impact

IFPRI

This 52-page study describes the data and methods needed by policymakers to understand and respond to the effects of a global food crisis on a country

Poverty & Hunger , International Development Posted: 2008-09-26

The Impact of Local Public Services and Geographical Cost of Living Differences on Poverty Estimates

IZA

This 40-page discussion paper illustrates how disregarding the value of local public services and geographical cost of living differences yields a misleading picture of poverty

Poverty & Hunger Posted: 2008-09-17