Defence, Terrorism & Security
Rebuilding Armed Forces: Learning from Iraq and Lebanon
SSI
This 49-page US monograph offers useful insights for future military assistance programmes and reconstruction efforts
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-06-03
Cyber Infrastructure Protection
SSI
This 324-page US book provides an integrated view and a comprehensive framework of the various issues relating to cyber infrastructure protection
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Science & TechnologyPosted: 2011-06-03
The United States and Pakistan: Partnership in Crisis
INSS
An Israeli analysis of US-Pakistan relations
Foreign Policy, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-31
Crisis in the Congo
CFR
This contingency planning memorandum describes the Congo's vulnerability to electoral violence and renewed rebellion in the lead up to national elections in November
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-05-31
Libya at the Centre
ORG
A 3-page UK security briefing examining the aftermath of the death of Osama bin Laden and developments in Syria, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-05-31
Economic Constraint and Ukraine’s Security Policy
IFRI
This 24-page French paper examines the motivations for extending Russia's Crimean bas lease as well as the history of military reform in the country to find that economic interests rather than ideological issues have motivated decision making in this area
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-05-31
Video-recorded Decapitations
DIIS
A 25-page Danish study examining why the terrorist use of video-recorded decapitations did not spread
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-27
Libya: Our First Cosmopolitan War?
FPRI
A 4-page US essay on growing legal restraints on warfare
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-26
Improving the Effectiveness of the Programme of Action on Small Arms: Implementation Challenges and Opportunities
UNIDIR
An 80-page report on improving the effectiveness of the Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons
Disarmament & Peacekeeping, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-26
Missile Defense Cooperation: Seizing the Opportunity
ACA
A US issue brief considering the status of cooperation on ballistic missile defence between the US and Russia
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Disarmament & PeacekeepingPosted: 2011-05-26
The GCC at 30: Shaking off the Dust?
INSS
An Israeli analysis of the status of the Gulf Cooperation Council
Regional, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-22
Next Steps for Pakistan Strategy
CFR
This 5-page US policy memorandum argues that Washington should move quickly to convert the post-bin Laden crisis into an opportunity to create a more effective working partnership with Islamabad that will serve U.S. interests over the short and long run.
Foreign Policy, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-22
Arms Transfers to Zimbabwe: Implications for an Arms Trade Treaty
SIPRI
This 12-page Swedish background paper details the sources of Zimbabwe's arms and military equipment and examines the question of how human rights considerations should affect arms supplies
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Human RightsPosted: 2011-05-22
Why We Should Study Developing Nuclear Earth Penetrators - and Why They Are Actually Stabilizing
FPRI
This US essay highlights the need for developing advanced earth-penetrating weapons
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-19
Jihadists in Jail: Radicalisation and the Indonesian Prison Experience
ASPI, RSIS
A 20-page report on terrorist motivations and pathways towards violent extremism based on personal interviews with members of the Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) terrorist organisation serving or having served prison sentences in Indonesia
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-18
The International Dimension of Security Dynamics in the South Caucasus
ADA
An Azerbaijani article on the security dynamics in the South Caucasus
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-05-18
Cyber Infrastructure Protection
SSI
This 324-page US book provides an integrated view and a comprehensive framework of the various issues relating to cyber infrastructure protection
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Science & TechnologyPosted: 2011-05-17
Central Asian Security Trends: Views from Europe and Russia
SSI
This 94-page US monograph comprehensively analyzes Russia's efforts to exert its influence in Central Asia
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-05-17
The Death of Bin Laden and the Future of al-Qaeda
INSS
An Israeli assesssment of the death of Bin Laden on the possible future of al-Qaeda
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-17
The Rise And (Future) Fall Of A Turkish-Iranian Axis
FPRI
A 3-page US analysis focusing on the rise of Iran and Turkey
Regional, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-16
The Mathematics of Military Balance
China-US Focus
A US article examining the implications of China’s military posture and expenditures
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-05-14
Russia-NATO Joint Missile Defence: Implementing the Decision
EastWest Institute
The 3-page report of an informal and off the record round-table on joint ballistic missile defence involving leading officials of NATO, Russia and the United States
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Disarmament & PeacekeepingPosted: 2011-05-14
Will the Human Disappear in Future Warfare?
Clingendael
An 8-page Dutch speech on the human role in future warfare, with special reference to developments in military robotics
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Science & TechnologyPosted: 2011-05-13
Pooling & Sharing: From Slow March to Quick March?
Egmont
A 4-page Belgian policy brief discussing the “Ghent Framework” for pooling & sharing of military capabilities in the EU
Defence, Terrorism & Security, European UnionPosted: 2011-05-13
Delegitimising Osama's Ideological Legacy
RSIS
A Singaporean commentary highlighting he importance of delegitimising Osama's ideological legacy
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-05-13
Osama bin Laden’s Death: Implications and Considerations
CRS
A 26-page US report on the implications of Obama bin Laden's death for the US
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Foreign PolicyPosted: 2011-05-11
The Democratic Republic of Congo: Background and Current Developments
CRS
An 18-page US report tracing a decade of chaos in Eastern Congo
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-05-11
Uganda: Current Conditions and the Crisis in North Uganda
CRS
This 40-page US report discusses the origins and nature of the current crisis in Nothern Uganda
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-05-11
Piracy off the Horn of Africa
CRS
A 47-page US report examining pirate attacks in the waters off Somalia and the Horn of Africa
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-05-11
Overview of Security Issues in Europe and Eurasia
AEI
A 12-page US House testimony on whether there is a significant divergence between how the United States and its closest European allies deal with the Islamist terrorist threat
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-05-08
The United States, NATO’s Strategic Concept, and Nuclear Issues
ACA et al.
An 8-page policy paper considering the NATO Deterrence and Defense Posture Review (DDPR) and development of a U.S. approach to nonstrategic nuclear weapons for a possible future negotiation with Russia
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Disarmament & PeacekeepingPosted: 2011-05-05
After the Strategic Concept: Towards a NATO Version 3.0
DIIS
This 52-page Danish paper considers whether the NATO produced by the new Strategic Concept will be a NATO Version 3.0, as claimed by the US Ambassador to NATO
Defence, Terrorism & Security, European UnionPosted: 2011-04-27
Indonesian Jihadism: Small Groups, Big Plans
Crisis Group
This 32-page report examines how ideological shifts in Indonesia originating in the Middle East have combined with local circumstances to produce a trend that favours targeted killings over indiscriminate bombings, local over foreign targets and individual or small group action over operations by more hierarchical organisations
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-04-20
Arms Transfers to Zimbabwe: Implications for an Arms Trade Treaty
SIPRI
This 12-page Swedish background paper details the sources of Zimbabwe's arms and military equipment and examines the question of how human rights considerations should affect arms supplies
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Human RightsPosted: 2011-04-14
NATO's New Strategic Concept: A Comprehensive Assessment
DIIS
A comprehensive 196-page Danish assessment of NATO's new Strategic Concept
Defence, Terrorism & Security, European UnionPosted: 2011-04-12
Hard Power and Soft Power: The Utility of Military Force as an Instrument of Policy in the 21st Century
SSI
A 73-page US monograph discussing the future use of hard and soft power
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Foreign PolicyPosted: 2011-04-11
Russian Military Politics and Russia's 2010 Defense Doctrine
SSI
Three US papers (196 pages)illuminating the political struggles among the government and the military in Russia to forge a new defence doctrine
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-04-11
Challenging the South Caucasus Security Deficit
FRIDE
A 29-page Spanish working paper examining the role played by regional security organisations play in the South Caucasus
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-04-07
Piracy and Maritime Security
SWP
A 94-page German research paper examining the regional characteristics and political, military, legal and economic implications of piracy
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Crime, Law & OrderPosted: 2011-04-07
Bangladesh: Successes in the Fight against Islamist Militancy
SWP
A 4-page German commentary on how the Bangladeshi government and judiciary have achieved remarkable successes in the fight against Islamist militancy
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-04-07
Yemen after Saleh
ISS
This European opinion piece highlights the risk that the potential for things going badly in Yemen after Saleh’s departure is great
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-04-06
Libya: Unrest and U.S. Policy
CRS
A 37-page US assessment of the security situation in Libya and its implications for US policy
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-04-04
Yemen: Background and U.S. Relations
CRS
A 51-page US report on political tension in Yemen and the implications for US policy
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-04-04
Libya: Lessons in Controlling the Arms Trade
SIPRI
This Swedish article considers the lessons of supplying arms to Libya
Disarmament & Peacekeeping, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-04-03
Libya, Bahrain and NATO
ORG
This 4-page UK security briefing looks at the ongoing political protests across the Middle East, the aftermath of the fall of the Mubarak regime in Egypt and NATO's current role in Libya
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-03-31
Afghanistan: Situation Assessment, March 2011
INSS
An Israeli analysis of the security and political situation in Afghanistan
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-03-30
Disaster Resilience and Recovery: Two Sides of the Same Coin
ASPI, Unisys Defence and Security
An 11-page Australian speech highlighting the need to re-examine how we can prevent disasters or minimize their impact on the community
Public Safety & Disaster Mitigation, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-03-28
Gaza: The Next Israeli-Palestinian War?
Crisis Group
This 8-page briefing asserts that a ceasefire between Israel and Hamas must urgently be achieved to prevent the situation spinning out of control
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Disarmament & PeacekeepingPosted: 2011-03-25
Qaddafi's Tobruk
EWI
A commentary illustrating how the campaigns of WWII provide strategic insights on today’s conflict in Libya
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-03-24
Air Strikes, and Questions, Mount Over Libya
CFR
A US analysis of the objectives of the international air campaign in Libya
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-03-23
Nation-building Interventions and National Security: An Australian Perspective
m, National Defence University
This 14-page essay urges Australia to give higher priority to preemptive strategies that help prevent conflict, and to holistic approaches that build sustainable stability
International Development, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-03-22
Saudi Arabia's Intervention in Bahrain: A Necessary Evil or a Strategic Blunder?
FPRI
This 3-page US memorandum considers whether Saudi Arabia’s decision to deploy more than one thousand troops in Bahrain is a necessary evil or a strategic blunder
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-03-21
The Next Base? Concerns about Somalia and Yemen
ASPI
This 8-page Australian report argues that although intelligence cooperation with key allies like the US is important, Australia will also need to adjust its domestic counter-terrorism focus as the al-Qaeda threat migrates from Afghanistan and Pakistan to Yemen and Somalia
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-03-21
Terrorist Use of the Internet: Information Operations in Cyberspace
CRS
A 19-page US report considering methods for countering terrorist and insurgent information operations on the Internet
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Science & TechnologyPosted: 2011-03-17
The Real Military Options in Libya
Brookings
A US article examining the military options open to the US in Libya
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-03-14
Cybersecurity: Is Technology Moving Faster than Policy?
SDA
The 16-page report of a meeting held to discuss the need for a common typology of cyberthreats and security policy responses in the European context
Defence, Terrorism & Security, European UnionPosted: 2011-03-11
China’s Assertive Behavior--Part One: On “Core Interests”
Hoover Instiution
This 25-page US essay assesses whether, to what extent, and in what manner, Beijing is becoming more assertive in several major areas of relevance to the United States
Foreign Policy, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-03-09
Iran's Secret Network: Major General Qassem Suleimani’s Inner Circle
AEI
This 10-page US bulletin identifies members of Suleimani's network within and outside the IRGC. It also argues that fluctuations in their careers could serve as indicators of Suleimani's authority in the Islamic Republic
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-03-04
Logic May Help: Pakistan and the FMCT
Pacific Forum CSIS
A commentary on Pakistan‟s opposition to the Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty (FMCT)
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-03-04
Humanitarian Intervention From Above: 'No-fly Zone Over Libya?
RSIS
A Singporean commentary on the complexities and challenges of establishing a No-fly zone over Libya
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-03-04
After Egypt
ORG
This 4-page UK security briefing seeks to assess the significance of the developments of the past four weeks across the Arab world and attempts to put this in a wider context
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-03-03
The War Within
Rand Corporation
A 226-page US monograph that reviews the current evidence on suicide epidemiology in the military, describes and catalogs suicide-prevention activities in the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and across each service, and identifies and recommends state-of-the-art suicide-prevention science and programmes
Defence, Terrorism & Security, HealthPosted: 2011-03-03
Libya in Crisis ... What's Next?
FPRI
A 5-page US bulletin examining Libya's future prospects
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-03-03
Cairo Viewed from Gaza: Too Soon to Celebrate
INSS
An Israeli article assessing possible Hamas reactions to recent events in Egypt
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-28
Libya's Leadership Crossroads
CFR
This US brief explaining that the elements that would allow for a smooth and peaceful transition of power in Libya are absent
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-28
Shaking the Heavens and Splitting the Earth
Rand Corporation
This 306-page US monograph analyzes published Chinese and Western sources about current and future capabilities and employment concepts of the PLAAF
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-02-28
Changing Pace: ASPI's Strategic Assessment 2011
ASPI
This 60-page Australian report provides an in-depth strategic assessment of a world where the pace of change appears to be accelerating. The relative slippage in US power, and the broader decline of Western influence, portend an era of fraying global leadership
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Foreign PolicyPosted: 2011-02-28
Counterfeit Drugs and National Security
Stimson Center
This 14-page US report asserts that counterfeit drug trafficking is not only a public health hazard of highest magnitude, it is also a national and international security threat
Public Safety & Disaster Mitigation, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-25
Russian Navy's Regeneration Plans
IISS
This article comments on the implications of the recent deal under which Russia will buy four Mistral naval ships from France
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-25
The OSCE's Uncertain Future
IISS
A 3-page commentary on the credibility of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) as a regional security provider
Defence, Terrorism & Security, European UnionPosted: 2011-02-25
Taking Stock of Russian–US Arms Control After New START
SIPRI
This Swedish article assesses the significance of the New START Treaty
Disarmament & Peacekeeping, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-24
The Libyans Must be Protected from Qadaffi
ISS Europa
A security analyysis calling for the international community must urgently stop Qaddafi’s murderous madness against peaceful demonstrators whose only crime is to ask for freedom and a better life
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-23
Security Developments in East Asia: What Implications for the EU?
ISS Europa
This 4-page policy brief assesses the changing power relations in East Asia and highlights potential implications of the region's security flashpoints for the EU
Defence, Terrorism & Security, European UnionPosted: 2011-02-23
European Involvement in the Arab-Israeli Conflict
ISS Europa
This 132-page paper aspires to make a timely contribution to policy thinking on European involvement in the Arab-Israeli conflict by focusing attention on a number of cross-cutting issues, challenges and opportunities for the EU
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Disarmament & PeacekeepingPosted: 2011-02-23
Securing Russia? New Security Law Raises More Questions Than It Answers
FIIA
A 2-page Finnish commentary on Russia's new “Federal Law On Security”
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-23
A Tunisian Solution for Egypt’s Military
"Foreign Affairs"
This US article explains that Egypt’s military does not have the stranglehold on power that many think, and a real Tunisian solution -- a civilian government free of military involvement -- could come to Egypt as well
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-23
Brainwashing Drives Young Pakistan Suicide Bombers
Reuters
This article explains the role of Pakistani madrassas in training suicide bombers
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-21
Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood
CFR
A US backgrounder on Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-21
Japan's and South Korea's Role in East Asian Security?
USAWC
This 38-page US paper argues that in order to meet security challenges in the Asia-Pacific region, the U.S. must expect Japan and South Korea to take on an increasing role for security in the region
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-02-18
Ukrainian Arms Supplies to Sub-Saharan Africa
SIPRI
A 16-page Swedish background paper on the supply of arms to sub-Saharan Africa by Ukraine
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-02-18
The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks
Crisis Group
This 39-page report analyses why, after fighting for more than 40 years, neither the army nor the communist New People’s Army (NPA) has been able to win militarily in the Philippines
Disarmament & Peacekeeping, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-17
China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities
CRS
This 103-page US report studies the implications of China's naval modernization programme for US naval capacity
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-02-17
China and Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction and Missiles: Policy Issues
CRS
This US Report discusses the security problem ofChina’s role in weapons proliferation and issues related to the U.S. policy response since the mid- 1990s
Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-17
The Arab Gulf States and the Iranian Nuclear Challenge: In the Line of Fire
Gloria Center
This 10-page Israeli article describes how, as a way to contain Iran’s ambitions, the Gulf states’ policy combines elements of appeasement with a fundamental reliance on the United States as a defending and deterring force
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-02-11
Exporting Terrorism and Subversion from the Gaza Strip
The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center
An Israeli security assessment arguing that terrorist organizations in the Gaza Strip may exploit the recent events to increase arms smuggling and infiltrate operatives into Egypt
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-02-11
Cyber Security: The Road Ahead
DCAF
This 54-page Swiss paper looks at the way cyber security problems are likely to develop, as well as at some of the ways they may best be tackled at the national and international level
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Science & TechnologyPosted: 2011-02-10
Alternative Strategies towards China: Charting India’s Course for the Next Decade
IPCS
A 4-page Indian issue brief asssessing furure Indo-Chinese relations
Foreign Policy, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-10
FMCT Negotiations: Games Pakistan Plays
IPCS
This Indian article discusses Pakistan’s strategic maneuvering and its implications for the global disarmament agenda
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-02-10
Working Towards Rules for Governing Cyber Conflict
EWI
This 60-page Russia-US report explores how to extend the humanitarian principles that govern war to cyberspace
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Science & TechnologyPosted: 2011-02-09
The EU’s Experience with Security Sector Governance
USIP
This 20-page US report examines the EU’s experience in supporting the transformation of ministries of interior to draw lessons for assistance programs and make recommendations for future cooperation
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-08
North Korea’s Nuclear Weapons: Technical Issues
CRS
A 32-page US report summarizing what is known from open sources about the North Korean nuclear weapons programme — including weapons-usable fissile material and warhead estimates—and assessing current developments in achieving denuclearization
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Disarmament & PeacekeepingPosted: 2011-02-07
The Conflicts in Yemen and U.S. National Security
SSI
This 83-page US monograph examines the political and security situation in Yemen and their implications for US security
Governance & Politics, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-02-07
The Turkish IHH, Which Has a Record of Supporting Terrorist Groups, has Close Relations with Turkey's AKP Government
The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center
An Israeli article describing the links between the Turkish IHH and the present Turkish government
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-02-02
Tunisia and Egypt in Context
ORG
This UK security briefing looks at the current situation in Tunisia and Egypt and the impact across the region
Defence, Terrorism & Security, Governance & PoliticsPosted: 2011-02-01
A New Geography of European Power?
Egmont
This 35-page Belgian paper offers an analysis of the geography of European power in the early twenty-first century
Foreign Policy, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-01-28
EUnity of Command: The Planning and Conduct of CSDP Operations
Egmont
A 30-page Belgian paper focusing on the planning and the conduct of CSDP operations
Defence, Terrorism & Security, European UnionPosted: 2011-01-28
From Lisbon to Lisbon: Squaring the Circle of EU and NATO Future Roles
Egmont
A 6-page Belgian policy brief examining the future roles of EU and NATO
Defence, Terrorism & Security, European UnionPosted: 2011-01-28
Emerging Powers and Cooperative Security in Asia
RSIS
This 41-page Singaporean working paper arguing that it is necessary for the regional countries, particularly India, China and Japan, to develop a security mechanism to ensure long-term peace and stability in Asia
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-01-28
Recent Development in the South China Sea: Grounds for Cautious Optimism?
RSIS
A 50-page Singaporean working paper overviewing four topics impinging on the South China Sea
Regional, Defence, Terrorism & SecurityPosted: 2011-01-28
South African Arms Supplies to sub-Saharan Africa
SIPRI
A 16-page Swedish background paper on South African arms supplies to sub-Saharan Africa
Defence, Terrorism & Security, RegionalPosted: 2011-01-28